Introduction #

Note: this is both a follow-up to the do classes suck or do classes suck articles, and yet another reason why you should learn Rust, so you should have read at least one of them in order to understand the context for this post.

Back to the spec #

As a reminder, here’s our spec:

• When robots come off the factory floor, they have no name.

• The first time a robot boots, a random name is generated.

• Every once in a while, the robots are reset to their factory settings, and the next time they boot, they get a new random name.

Using Rust #

The goal of Rust is to allow to code to be 3 things at once: correct, fast, and expressive. This is no easy task and that’s why Rust is a bit complicated to learn (which is not such a bad thing in my opinion, but I digress).

Anyway, what’s interesting with the Rust programming language is that we can express the spec in such a way that invalid states lead to compilation errors and without using anything but structs and methods.

Here’s how. Since the specs talks about names that may or may not exist, we’re going to use two different types - one for the unnamed robots, and one for the robots that have a name. To be precise, those are called structs:

// We wrap the robot name  inside a struct
pub struct NamedRobot {
  name: String,
}

// We create a brand new type for "robots that don't have names"
pub struct UnnamedRobot;

// Note : interestingly, this struct costs *nothing* to allocate and is
// known as a zero-sized type (ZST) in Rust parlance.

Then we can express the transitions between allowed states as public methods on those types (inside a impl block) or as free functions

Note: that most of the bodies are omitted here, but you can find tho whole source code on github

// Note: this is a private implementation detail, so no
// `pub` here!
fn generate_random_name() -> String { /* ... */ }

pub fn new_robot() -> UnnamedRobot { /* ... */ }

impl UnnamedRobot {
    // Note: emit a compiler warning if users call start() without
    // using the return value
    #[must_use]
    pub fn start(self) -> NamedRobot {
      let name = generate_random_name();
      NamedRobot { name }
    }
}

impl NamedRobot {
    pub fn name(&self) -> &str { /* ... */ }

    pub fn stop(&self) { /* ... */ }

    pub fn start(&self) { /* ... */ }

    // Note: taking ownership of `self` here!
    pub fn reset(self) -> UnnamedRobot { /* ... */ }
}

Valid code compiles of course:

let robot = new_robot();
let robot = robot.start();
let name = robot.name();
println!("New robot with name: {name}");

And invalid code won’t compile. For instance:

let robot = new_robot();
let name = robot.name()
// Error: method name() not found for UnnamedRobot

You can reset a robot, restart it and get a new name:

let robot = new_robot();
let robot = robot.start();
let name1 = robot.name().to_string();

let robot = robot.reset();

let robot = robot.start();
let name2 = robot.name().to_string();
assert_ne!(name1, name2);

You may wondering why we need .to_string() here. Well, let me explain.

Owning and borrowing #

I mentioned earlier that reset takes ownership of the robot.

That’s because the method uses self as first parameter.

In contrast, the name method uses &self and borrows the robot.

This matters because in addition to having a rich type system as we saw above, the Rust compiler also enforce rules about ownership.

Here are those rules:

• Each value in Rust has an owner.
• There can only be one owner at a time.
• At any given time, you can have either one mutable reference or any number of immutable references.

What this means is that when the robot is started, you can access the robot name any time you want, as long as you don’t try to modify it. But, once reset() is called, the value has been moved, and thus you can no longer access the robot name.

Let’s this in practice:

let robot = new_robot();
let robot = robot.start();
let name1 = robot.name().to_string();
let name2 = robot.name().to_string();
robot.reset();
let name3 = robot.name();

// Error: value `robot`  moved during called to reset reset()

If Rust had allowed this code to compile, we would have a name3 variable after the robot has been reset, which is not allowed by our spec!

Note that this also means we can’t have name1 and name2 be merely string references (&str).

That’s why we use the .to_string() method, which gives us as a mutable copy (a String) for the robot name.

Conclusion #

If you learn Rust, you’ll find that:

• There’s more to Object-Oriented Programming than just classes
• The borrow checker, when used well, can prevent a bunch of mistakes at compile time.

Side note: I used two different types to make a point. You will find a more idiomatic version of the code in the aptly named “idiomatic” branch on GitHub.

The again show again how the borrow checker rules prevent invalid states at compile time, this time because some methods (like start or reset) use &mut self and other just &self (like name). It also shows the “new type” pattern, in order to enforce robot name format at runtime.